Supporting Neurodiversity in Schools: A Guide for Parents and Teachers

Introduction: Embracing Neurodiversity

Neurodiversity acknowledges the variations in human brain functioning, encompassing conditions such as autism, ADHD, dyspraxia, and dyslexia. It perceives these neurological differences as diverse expressions of human cognition rather than deficits, thereby emphasizing the unique strengths that individuals bring to our communities.

This paradigm shifts from a deficit-based model to one of appreciation underscores the importance of valuing neurodiverse individuals for their contributions. In the realm of education, this entails redefining success, inclusion, and equitable learning opportunities. Educators are encouraged to recognize the distinct talents of neurodivergent students, such as creativity, problem-solving abilities, and focused attention.

Incorporating neurodiversity in educational institutions involves implementing practical strategies to support and empower neurodivergent students. This approach fosters inclusive classrooms where all students feel valued, respected, and supported. Embracing neurodiversity promotes acceptance and equity, enabling students to thrive in a diverse world.

Educators play a pivotal role in creating environments that celebrate differences, thereby enhancing the educational experience for all students. By utilizing collaboration, empathy, and evidence-based practices, educators can effectively address the needs of neurodivergent learners, which ultimately benefits the entire student body. This approach cultivates a culture of curiosity, collaboration, and respect, preparing students for a world that values diversity.

Understanding Neurodiversity

Envision a classroom where diverse cognitive styles are acknowledged and celebrated. Neurodiversity regards learning differences as natural variations in human cognition, challenging the traditional "one-size-fits-all" educational model. This concept encourages educators to perceive these differences as strengths rather than deficiencies. It is estimated that 15-20% of the global population is neurodivergent, often displaying exceptional abilities in pattern recognition, creativity, and problem-solving. For example, students with autism may excel in structured tasks, those with ADHD bring vigor and innovative thinking, and individuals with dyslexia possess strong visual-spatial reasoning skills.

Nonetheless, neurodivergent students also encounter challenges such as sensory processing issues and executive functioning difficulties. Educators who comprehend these traits can aid students in navigating these challenges while capitalizing on their strengths. Embracing neurodiversity necessitates a shift from a deficit-focused model to one that values student capabilities. This involves creating environments where neurodivergent learners can thrive and employing differentiated instruction to address individual needs. Educators can implement sensory-friendly setups, alternative assessments, and assistive technologies.

Understanding neurodiversity requires adopting a broader vision of inclusivity, concentrating on students' strengths, and fostering resilience, creativity, and collaboration. This approach enhances confidence, promotes social belonging, and prepares students for a diverse world. Embracing neurodiversity transforms classrooms into dynamic spaces that celebrate differences, unlock potential, and enrich the educational experience for all.

The Relevance of Neurodiversity for Teachers

Teachers play a crucial role in creating inclusive and equitable learning environments. Their responsibilities extend beyond mere instruction to influencing how students perceive themselves and their capabilities. By understanding and embracing neurodiversity, educators can dismantle stigmas, celebrate the unique talents of neurodivergent students, and promote a culture of inclusion and acceptance. This transformation begins with professional training, advocacy, and a commitment to tailored educational approaches that address the diverse needs of all learners.

Adapting educational systems to support neurodiversity requires moving beyond standardized methods to individualized learning plans that empower every student. Teachers who appreciate the strengths of neurodivergent students help shift the narrative from one of deficits to one of opportunities. For example, students with autism may demonstrate exceptional attention to detail or logical thinking, while those with ADHD often bring energy, enthusiasm, and innovative problem-solving skills. Recognizing and nurturing these strengths can unlock their potential, fostering both academic achievement and personal growth.

Inclusive teaching also involves addressing stigma by normalizing neurodiversity as a natural part of the human experience. Educators must model acceptance and promote understanding within their classrooms. By facilitating open discussions about various learning styles and strengths, teachers can help students develop empathy and mutual respect, thereby reducing the barriers created by stigma. Moreover, educators are uniquely positioned to advocate for systemic changes that ensure schools provide the necessary resources and accommodations for all students to succeed. These might include implementing flexible teaching methods, providing access to assistive technologies, or adapting classroom environments to be sensory-friendly. Such accommodations not only support neurodivergent students but also enrich the learning experience for everyone.

Creating safe spaces where neurodivergent students feel valued and supported is another critical aspect of inclusive teaching. When students know their unique contributions are recognized, their confidence and self-esteem flourish. Teachers can nurture this sense of belonging by celebrating diversity, encouraging collaboration, and affirming the strengths and perspectives of every learner. In championing neurodiversity, educators play a pivotal role in preparing students for a world that increasingly values innovation and diverse ways of thinking. By fostering an inclusive classroom culture, they contribute to a broader societal shift towards acceptance and equity, ensuring that all learners are equipped to succeed and contribute meaningfully to their communities.

Evolutionary Perspectives on Neurodiversity

The concept of neurodiversity is integral to understanding human evolution. Traits linked to neurodivergent conditions, such as autism and ADHD, have been shaped by genetic changes that provided adaptive advantages throughout history. By examining the evolutionary origins of these traits, educators can recognize their intrinsic value and view them as strengths rather than challenges.

Human Accelerated Regions (HARs), rapidly evolving areas within the genome, are associated with characteristics related to autism, such as enhanced cognition, systemizing abilities, and pattern recognition skills. In prehistoric contexts, these traits were crucial for problem-solving and logical reasoning, vital for survival. Similarly, behaviors typically linked to ADHD, including novelty-seeking, heightened vigilance, and exploratory tendencies, were adaptive strategies that improved resource acquisition and survival in ever-changing environments. These features highlight the significant role neurodivergence has played in human adaptability and advancement.

By acknowledging these evolutionary perspectives, educators can perceive neurodiversity not as an obstacle but as a source of innovation and resilience. For instance, the intense focus often seen in individuals with autism can lead to extraordinary achievements in specialized fields, whereas the spontaneous creativity associated with ADHD can inspire innovative solutions to complex issues. These traits, once essential for survival, continue to make substantial contributions to society.

Framing neurodiversity as a natural aspect of human evolution encourages educators to adopt a strengths-based approach in the classroom. Rather than concentrating solely on addressing challenges, teachers can emphasize the unique contributions that neurodivergent students bring to their learning communities. This perspective fosters an appreciation for diverse thoughts and behaviors, enriching the educational experience for all students. Understanding the evolutionary roots of neurodiverse traits allows educators to create an environment where every student feels valued for their individuality. This approach supports neurodivergent learners while enhancing the overall educational experience by celebrating the broad spectrum of human potential. It serves as a powerful reminder that diversity, in all its forms, has always been central to the success and survival of our species.

Learning Implications of ADHD and Autism

ADHD: Challenges and Opportunities in the Classroom

Students diagnosed with ADHD frequently exhibit characteristics such as inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity, which can present challenges within conventional educational environments. Nevertheless, these attributes also provide distinct opportunities for promoting creativity, spontaneity, and enthusiasm in the classroom. By employing carefully considered strategies, educators can convert potential difficulties into pathways for dynamic and engaging learning experiences.

Creating Supportive Environments for Students with ADHD

Strategy	Description
Predictable Routines	Students with ADHD thrive in structured environments where expectations and schedules are consistent. Using visual schedules and daily planners helps reduce uncertainty and enhance focus.
Minimize Distractions	Arrange seating to limit external distractions, such as noise or movement, and create a calm and organized classroom layout. Consider using desk dividers or quiet zones for focused tasks.
Visual and Multisensory Aids	Charts, diagrams, and color-coded materials support attention and information retention. Incorporating multiple sensory modalities—such as tactile activities or auditory cues—can further engage students.
Active, Hands-On Learning	Lessons that include movement, manipulatives, or interactive technology capture attention and make learning more accessible. Examples include science experiments, role-playing, or building models to reinforce concepts.
Frequent Movement Breaks	Allow students to release energy through short physical activities, such as stretching, jumping, or quick walks. Movement not only helps regulate attention but also supports emotional regulation.
Gamify Learning	Use game-based approaches to teach academic content. For instance, turning math drills into competitive games or using educational apps can make learning enjoyable and engaging.
Teach Self-Regulation Skills	Introduce strategies such as deep breathing, mindfulness exercises, or time management tools to help students manage impulses and focus on tasks. Role-playing scenarios can also teach problem-solving and emotional regulation.
Foster Social Connections	Create opportunities for group work and peer collaboration to enhance social skills. Activities like cooperative projects or structured peer mentoring encourage teamwork and positive interactions.

Key Insight for Educators:

Flexibility and adaptability are critical. Recognizing that each student with ADHD is unique allows teachers to tailor strategies, ensuring that the learning environment is both stimulating and supportive.

Autism: Building Structured and Inclusive Learning Spaces

Students on the autism spectrum frequently encounter difficulties related to sensory sensitivities, social interactions, and communication. These challenges can be mitigated effectively through the implementation of structured environments, clear communication protocols, and personalized teaching strategies that acknowledge and leverage each student’s unique strengths and interests.

Creating Autism-Friendly Classrooms

Strategy	Details
Establish Structure and Predictability	Use visual schedules, calendars, or step-by-step instructions to provide clarity and reduce anxiety.
Support Sensory Needs	Offer sensory regulation tools such as noise-canceling headphones, weighted blankets, or fidget toys. Create quiet zones or sensory corners where students can retreat when feeling overwhelmed. Adjust classroom lighting and minimize harsh noises to create a calming atmosphere.
Tailor Lessons to Special Interests	Engage students by incorporating their passions into lesson plans. For example, a student with an interest in trains might explore math concepts through train schedules or use trains as a theme in writing assignments.
Facilitate Clear Communication	Use simple, direct language and avoid idioms or sarcasm that may be confusing. Pair verbal instructions with visual cues to enhance understanding. Provide written or pictorial supports to clarify expectations and reinforce learning.
Foster Peer Connections	Implement buddy systems to pair students with supportive classmates who can model positive social interactions. Use structured activities, such as group projects or cooperative games, to build social skills in a guided setting. Introduce social narratives or role-playing exercises to teach social communication and problem-solving.
Encourage Strength-Based Learning	Focus on what students excel at and use these strengths to support their areas of difficulty. For instance, a student with strong analytical skills might enjoy puzzles or coding activities that build on those abilities.
Provide Feedback and Reassurance	Offer regular positive reinforcement to build confidence. Specific and immediate feedback helps students understand their progress and feel motivated.

Building Relationships with Autistic Students

Strategy	Description
Understand Individual Needs	Learn about each student’s sensory preferences, communication style, and triggers to build trust and rapport.
Engage Family and Caregivers	Collaborate with families to understand a student’s background, strengths, and needs. Regular communication fosters consistency between home and school.
Leverage Assistive Technology	Use tools like text-to-speech software, communication apps, or adaptive devices to empower students to participate in classroom activities.

Key Insight for Educators:

A student-centered approach that highlights strengths and offers targeted support can significantly benefit autistic learners. Educators who foster a compassionate and structured environment enable students to overcome challenges while enhancing their confidence and independence.

By implementing these practical strategies, school professionals can establish inclusive and supportive environments that address the challenges associated with ADHD and autism; while also recognizing the unique contributions these students bring to the classroom. Emphasizing flexibility, structure, and individualized support transforms education into a platform where all learners can excel.

Comorbidities and Co-occurring Traits: Addressing the Overlapping Needs of Neurodivergent Students

Many neurodivergent students navigate the intricacies of overlapping conditions or traits, such as anxiety, sensory processing disorder (SPD), alexithymia, dyspraxia, dysgraphia, dyscalculia, or hyperlexia. These co-occurrences often exacerbate the challenges they encounter while simultaneously showcasing unique strengths and abilities. A nuanced understanding of these interconnections enables educators to implement tailored interventions that address the diverse needs of their students comprehensively.

Recognizing Common Comorbidities

Condition	Description	Challenges
Anxiety	High levels of anxiety often accompany conditions such as ADHD or autism.	Heightened social anxiety, overwhelmed by managing deadlines, maintaining focus in noisy environments.
Sensory Processing Disorder (SPD)	Neurodivergent students may have heightened or diminished sensory responses.	Difficult to concentrate or engage in traditional classroom activities, affects comfort, attention, and participation.
Alexithymia	Difficulty identifying and expressing emotions, commonly found in students with autism and ADHD.	Struggle to communicate their needs, essential for educators to use empathetic and patient approaches.
Dyspraxia	Challenges with motor planning and coordination.	Issues with handwriting, physical education activities, managing daily classroom tasks.
Dysgraphia	Affects writing skills.	Struggles with handwriting, spelling, organizing written work, illegible handwriting, frustration in writing.
Dyscalculia	Impacts mathematical understanding and numerical reasoning.	Difficulty with concepts such as time, money, measurements, solving equations, requires alternative teaching strategies.
Hyperlexia	Advanced ability to decode written text, often seen in some autistic and ADHD students.	Challenges in comprehension and verbal communication, struggle to grasp deeper meanings of texts, engage in reciprocal conversations.

Tailored Interventions to Support Neurodivergent Students

Approach	Description	Beneficiaries
Multisensory Approaches	Combine visual, auditory, and tactile methods to reinforce learning	Students with dyscalculia, dysgraphia
Assistive Technologies	Text-to-speech software, visual planning apps, math-solving apps or calculators	Students with dyslexia, dysgraphia, dyspraxia, ADHD, dyscalculia
Sensory Supports	Provide sensory tools, create sensory-friendly spaces	Students with SPD, autism, alexithymia
Social and Emotional Learning (SEL)	Use role-playing, social narratives, mindfulness activities	Students with alexithymia, hyperlexia
Flexible and Individualized Instruction	Break tasks into smaller steps, provide visual instructions, pair decoding with comprehension strategies	Students with dyspraxia, hyperlexia
Physical Accommodations	Provide alternatives to handwriting, offer support during physical activities	Students with dysgraphia, dyspraxia
Foster Peer Relationships	Use buddy systems, group projects	Students with alexithymia, autism

Collaboration and Communication

A multidisciplinary approach is critical for addressing the interplay of these traits. Key practices include:

Strategy	Description
Team Collaboration	Involve teachers, caregivers, therapists, and specialists to develop comprehensive Individualized Education Plans (IEPs) or 504 Plans that address each student’s unique needs.
Frequent Monitoring	Conduct regular assessments to evaluate progress and refine interventions as necessary. This ensures that strategies remain effective and responsive to the student’s growth.
Empowering Families	Equip families with resources and strategies to reinforce learning and emotional regulation at home, bridging the gap between school and home environments.
Professional Development	Provide training for school staff on recognizing and addressing conditions like alexithymia, dyspraxia, or hyperlexia, ensuring a deeper understanding of how to support neurodivergent learners.

Empathy and Adaptability in Action

Building a classroom culture that embraces diversity starts with empathy and adaptability. For instance:

Examples	Student Characteristics	Challenges	Strategies
1	ADHD, dysgraphia	Struggle with written assignments	Allow verbal reports, dictation software
2	Hyperlexia	Falter during comprehension discussions	Break texts into sections, guided questions
3	Dyspraxia	Find handwriting tasks arduous	Pre-printed materials, keyboarding options

A Holistic Approach to Neurodivergence

By identifying and addressing the co-occurring characteristics of neurodivergence, educators can foster supportive and inclusive environments that respect each student’s strengths and challenges. Customized interventions, clear communication, and a dedication to adaptability ensure that neurodivergent learners receive the comprehensive support necessary for their success. This holistic approach ultimately empowers neurodivergent students and enriches the classroom experience for all learners by promoting a culture of diversity, acceptance, and collaboration.

Strategies for Identifying Neurodivergent Students

The identification of neurodivergent students is a complex process that typically begins with careful observation and involves the use of various tools, collaboration among stakeholders, and a high level of sensitivity. Educators play a crucial role in detecting indicators of neurodivergence, which may present themselves in both subtle and overt manners. For instance, students might exhibit difficulties in social interactions, show academic inconsistencies, or encounter challenges in adapting to established routines.

Effective Tools and Techniques for Identification

Category	Details
Observation and Awareness	Note patterns of behavior, such as difficulty sustaining attention, avoiding eye contact, sensory sensitivities, or challenges in group activities. Look for positive traits as well, such as hyperfocus, creative problem-solving, or exceptional pattern recognition.
Screening Tools	Pediatric Symptom Checklist, Autism Spectrum Screening Questionnaire (ASSQ), CDC ADHD Checklist. Regular screenings can help identify students who may have been overlooked due to masking or subtle presentations.
Collaboration with Caregivers and Specialists	Caregivers have valuable insights into behaviors at home. Specialists like school psychologists, speech therapists, or occupational therapists can conduct formal evaluations and offer tailored recommendations.
Recognizing Masking Behaviors	Masking is prevalent among females and BIPOC students. A quiet and compliant student may be concealing struggles with ADHD, anxiety, or sensory sensitivities. Build trust through consistency, open dialogue, and a safe classroom culture.

Proactive Identification Strategies:

Strategy	Description
Regular Check-ins	Establish a system for regular check-ins with students to discuss challenges or concerns.
Anonymous Surveys	Use anonymous surveys to allow students to share their experiences or needs without fear of judgment.
Showcase Strengths	Create opportunities for students to showcase their strengths, such as projects that align with their interests or unique skills.

Inclusive Classroom Strategies

Inclusive classrooms celebrate diversity and prioritize accessibility for all learners. They focus on building strengths, accommodating diverse needs, and fostering a supportive learning environment that empowers students to succeed.

Core Principles of Inclusive Education

Strategy	Details
Presuming Competence	Approach every student with the belief that they are capable of learning and succeeding. Highlighting their strengths builds confidence and engagement.
Creating Sensory-Friendly Environments	Offer flexible seating, such as bean bags or standing desks, to support students with sensory needs. Provide tools like noise-canceling headphones, fidget toys, or adjustable lighting to help students manage sensory input effectively.
Integrating Self-Regulation Tools	Teach mindfulness exercises, deep breathing techniques, or use timers to help students manage stress and transitions. Establish calming spaces in the classroom where students can self-regulate during overwhelming moments.
Using Multisensory Learning Methods	Combine visual, auditory, and kinesthetic approaches to teaching. For example, pair written instructions with verbal explanations and hands-on activities.

Universal Design for Learning (UDL):

Aspect	Examples
Multiple means of representation	Visual aids, diagrams, videos
Diverse options for engagement	Gamified learning, collaborative projects, independent study
Various modes of expression	Oral presentations, digital media, artistic creations

Fostering Social Inclusion:

Strategy	Description
Cooperative learning	Encourage collaboration and mutual respect
Discussions or activities	Celebrate differences, promote acceptance and empathy

Tailored Support for Specific Groups

Female Students

Neurodivergent females frequently encounter distinct challenges attributable to their subtle symptom presentations and societal expectations. Their characteristics tend to be internalized, such as perfectionism and anxiety, rather than externalized behaviors like hyperactivity. Consequently, these struggles are often less observable.

Category	Details
Gender-Specific Frameworks	Use tools like the Girls Questionnaire for Autism Spectrum Condition (GQ-ASC), designed to capture traits more common in females.
Gender-Specific Frameworks	Create peer support groups where neurodivergent girls can connect with others who share similar experiences.
Promoting Equity	Offer individualized accommodations that reflect their unique strengths and challenges, such as extended deadlines for students who experience perfectionism-related procrastination.
Promoting Equity	Celebrate contributions by showcasing the achievements and talents of neurodivergent females in the classroom.

BIPOC Students

Cultural stigma and systemic barriers often hinder the recognition and support of neurodivergent BIPOC students. A culturally responsive approach is essential.

Category	Practices
Culturally Informed Practices	Engage with families to understand cultural perspectives on neurodivergence and incorporate their insights into intervention strategies. Ensure representation by including diverse role models in curriculum materials and inviting neurodivergent individuals from BIPOC communities to speak with students.
Bridging Resource Gaps	Develop outreach programs and partnerships with community organizations to provide targeted support. Offer mentorship opportunities and scholarships for neurodivergent BIPOC students to foster long-term empowerment.

Benefits of Supporting Neurodiversity

Recognizing and supporting neurodiversity can significantly enhance educational outcomes for all involved parties. This approach enriches the learning environment, fosters empathy among students, and equips them with the skills necessary to thrive in a society that values diverse perspectives.

Category	Details
For Students	Neurodivergent students excel in areas such as innovation, problem-solving, and creativity. Personalized support enables them to thrive academically, socially, and emotionally.
For Classrooms	Inclusive classrooms foster collaboration, mutual respect, and empathy among peers. These skills prepare all students for interpersonal and professional success.
For Society	Neurodivergent individuals bring unique strengths to the workforce, contributing to industries like technology, design, and the arts. Schools that champion diversity equip students to succeed in an interconnected and rapidly evolving world.

Practical Examples

Instruction	Description
Visual and Auditory Instructions	Combine written materials with narrated videos or live demonstrations to ensure accessibility for students with dyslexia or auditory processing challenges.
Flexible Seating Options	Offer standing desks, floor cushions, or movable chairs to accommodate sensory preferences and promote focus.
Celebrating Strengths	Host student showcases or talent days that allow neurodivergent learners to share their unique abilities, fostering pride and peer admiration.

By advocating for neurodiversity, educators foster inclusive learning environments, thereby establishing a foundation that appreciates and leverages diversity. These initiatives not only prepare students for significant societal contributions but also enhance the educational experience for everyone involved.

References

1. Accardo, A. L., Pontes, N. H., & Pontes, M. F. (2022). Heightened anxiety and depression among autistic adolescents with adhd: Findings from the national survey of children's health 2016–2019. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 54(2), 563–576. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-022-05803-9

2. Alderton, M. (2023, December 15). Nurturing neurodiversity: How can we build a more neuro-inclusive society? Insight Digital Magazine. https://www.thechicagoschool.edu/insight/psychology/nurturing-neurodiversity-neuro-inclusive-society/

3. Ali, Z. (2023). Adhd in girls: Symptoms, early warning signs, and complications. MedicalNewsToday. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/315009

4. Andersen, R. (2022, November 16). Autism evolution: Uncovering the history of asd. Autism Parenting Magazine. https://www.autismparentingmagazine.com/autism-spectrum-history/

5. Austin, R. D., & Pisano, G. P. (2017, April 30). Neurodiversity is a competitive advantage. Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/2017/05/neurodiversity-as-a-competitive-advantage

6. Babinski, D. E., Kujawa, A., Kessel, E. M., Arfer, K. B., & Klein, D. N. (2018). Sensitivity to peer feedback in young adolescents with symptoms of adhd: Examination of neurophysiological and self-report measures. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 47(4), 605–617. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-018-0470-2

7. Barack, D. L., Ludwig, V. U., Parodi, F., Ahmed, N., Brannon, E. M., Ramakrishnan, A., & Platt, M. L. (2024). Attention deficits linked with proclivity to explore while foraging. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 291(2017). https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2022.2584

8. Bernardin, C. J., Mason, E., Lewis, T., & Kanne, S. (2021). "you must become a chameleon to survive": Adolescent experiences of camouflaging. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 51(12), 4422–4435. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-021-04912-1

9. Bodison, S. C., & Parham, L. (2017). Specific sensory techniques and sensory environmental modifications for children and youth with sensory integration difficulties: A systematic review. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 72(1), 7201190040p1–7201190040p11. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2018.029413

10. Burd, L. (2016). Fasd and adhd: Are they related and how? BMC Psychiatry, 16(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-016-1028-x

11. Capanna-Hodge, R. (2024, March 6). How to guide your child through rejection sensitivity dysphoria autism. Dr. Roseann. https://drroseann.com/how-to-guide-your-child-through-rejection-sensitivity-dysphoria-autism/

12. Cerutti, R., Spensieri, V., Presaghi, F., Renzi, A., Palumbo, N., Simone, A., Solano, L., & Di Trani, M. (2020). Alexithymic traits and somatic symptoms in children and adolescents: A screening approach to explore the mediation role of depression. Psychiatric Quarterly, 91(2), 521–532. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11126-020-09715-8

13. Chellew, T., Barbaro, J., & Freeman, N. C. (2022). The early childhood signs of autism in females: A systematic review. Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40489-022-00337-3

14. Christner, R. W. (2024). Understanding and supporting neurodiversity in the classroom. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/living-psyched/202403/understanding-and-supporting-neurodiversity-in-the-classroom

15. Connolly, M. (2019). Adhd in girls: The symptoms that are ignored in females. ADDitude. https://www.additudemag.com/adhd-in-girls-women/

16. Darweesh, A. M., Elserogy, Y. M., Khalifa, H., Gabra, R. H., & El-Ghafour, M. A. (2020). Psychiatric comorbidity among children and adolescents with dyslexia. Middle East Current Psychiatry, 27(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s43045-020-00035-y

17. Day, N. (2021, September 3). Adhd & rsd — how to help children with rejection sensitive dysphoria. Raising An Extraordinary Person. https://hes-extraordinary.com/rejection-sensitive-dysphoria

18. Doyle, N. (2020). Neurodiversity at work: A biopsychosocial model and the impact on working adults. British Medical Bulletin, 135(1), 108–125. https://doi.org/10.1093/bmb/ldaa021

19. Flannigan, K., Pei, J., McLachlan, K., Harding, K., Mela, M., Cook, J., Badry, D., & McFarlane, A. (2022). Responding to the unique complexities of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. Frontiers in Psychology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.778471

20. Fliesler, N. (2016). Autism and evolution. Harvard Medical School. https://hms.harvard.edu/news/autism-evolution

21. Frye, D. (2017, January 17). The children left behind. ADDitude. https://www.additudemag.com/race-and-adhd-how-people-of-color-get-left-behind/

22. Gernux, B. (2024). Support neurodivergent students - american school counselor association (asca). CASC. https://www.schoolcounselor.org/Newsletters/March-2024/Support-Neurodivergent-Students?st=CA

23. Giovazolias, T. (2023). The relationship of rejection sensitivity to depressive symptoms in adolescence: The indirect effect of perceived social acceptance by peers. Behavioral Sciences, 14(1), 10. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14010010

24. Hamilton, L. G., & Petty, S. (2023). Compassionate pedagogy for neurodiversity in higher education: A conceptual analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1093290

25. Henry Ford Health Staff. (2023). Autism masking is common. here's how to recognize and offer support. Henry Ford Health. https://www.henryford.com/blog/2023/04/autism-masking

26. Jorgenson, C., Lewis, T., Rose, C., & Kanne, S. (2020). Social camouflaging in autistic and neurotypical adolescents: A pilot study of differences by sex and diagnosis. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 50(12), 4344–4355. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-020-04491-7

27. keywelladmin. (2022, February 21). Understanding dysphoria and children's sensitivity to criticism. Keywell. https://keywell.com.au/resources/articles/a-childs-extreme-emotions-rejection-sensitive-dysphoria/

28. Larson, J. J., Graham, D. L., Singer, L. T., Beckwith, A. M., Terplan, M., Davis, J. M., Martinez, J., & Bada, H. S. (2019). Cognitive and behavioral impact on children exposed to opioids during pregnancy. Pediatrics, 144(2). https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2019-0514

29. Masi, G., Sesso, G., Pfanner, C., Valente, E., Molesti, A., Placini, F., Boldrini, S., Loriaux, N., Drago, F., Montesanto, A., Pisano, S., & Milone, A. (2021). An exploratory study of emotional dysregulation dimensions in youth with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and/or bipolar spectrum disorders. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.619037

30. Miller, G. (2023). Why parents need to know about dyspraxia. Parents. https://www.parents.com/kids/development/learning-disabilities/why-havent-we-heard-of-dyspraxia/

31. Mrug, S., Molina, B. G., Hoza, B., Gerdes, A. C., Hinshaw, S. P., Hechtman, L., & Arnold, L. (2012). Peer rejection and friendships in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Contributions to long-term outcomes. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40(6), 1013–1026. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-012-9610-2

32. MyDisabilityJobs. (2024, January 5). Neurodiversity in the workplace. MyDisabilityJobs.com. https://mydisabilityjobs.com/statistics/neurodiversity-in-the-workplace/

33. Neff, M. A. (2022, April 27). Bipoc and autism. Insights of a Neurodivergent Clinician. https://neurodivergentinsights.com/autism-infographics/special-edition-bipoc-and-autism

34. O’Dea, Á., Stanley, M., Coote, S., & Robinson, K. (2021). Children and young people's experiences of living with developmental coordination disorder/dyspraxia: A systematic review and meta-ethnography of qualitative research. PLOS ONE, 16(3), e0245738. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245738

35. Odukoya, A. (2022). Neurodivergence at a glance. Johns Hopkins University. https://imagine.jhu.edu/blog/2022/10/05/neurodivergence-at-a-glance/

36. Ostrolenk, A., Forgeot d’Arc, B., Jelenic, P., Samson, F., & Mottron, L. (2017). Hyperlexia: Systematic review, neurocognitive modelling, and outcome. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 79, 134–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.04.029

37. Page, V. (2023, March 9). Adhd and masking · adhd in children support. ADHD in Children Support. https://adhdinchildrensupport.com/adhd-and-masking/

38. Passarello, N., Tarantino, V., Chirico, A., Menghini, D., Costanzo, F., Sorrentino, P., Fucà, E., Gigliotta, O., Alivernini, F., Oliveri, M., Lucidi, F., Vicari, S., Mandolesi, L., & Turriziani, P. (2022). Sensory processing disorders in children and adolescents: Taking stock of assessment and novel therapeutic tools (Y. Zhang, Ed.). Brain Sciences, 12(11). https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci12111478

39. Rethink Dyslexia. (2023, September 28). Unmasking dyslexia: Understanding the impact of masking on mental health and advocacy - re:Think dyslexia. re:think dyslexia. https://rethinkdyslexia.com.au/unmaskign-dysleixa-understanding-the-impact-of-masking-on-mental-health-and-advocacy/

40. Scheyer, A. (2019, January 16). How marijuana exposure affects developing babies' brains - science in the news. Science in the News. https://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2019/marijuana-exposure-affects-developing-babies-brains/

41. Shah, P. J., Boilson, M., Rutherford, M., Prior, S., Johnston, L., Maciver, D., & Forsyth, K. (2022). Neurodevelopmental disorders and neurodiversity: Definition of terms from scotland's national autism implementation team. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 221(3), 577–579. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.2022.43

42. Sissons, C. (2023). Autism in girls: Symptoms and diagnosis. MedicalNewsToday. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/325574

43. Stenseng, F., Belsky, J., Skalicka, V., & Wichstrøm, L. (2015). Peer rejection and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms: Reciprocal relations through ages 4, 6, and 8. Child Development, 87(2), 365–373. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12471

44. Swenson, K. S., Gomez Wulschner, L. E., Hoelscher, V. M., Folts, L., Korth, K. M., Oh, W., & Bates, E. (2023). Fetal cannabidiol (cbd) exposure alters thermal pain sensitivity, problem-solving, and prefrontal cortex excitability. Molecular Psychiatry, 28(8), 3397–3413. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-023-02130-y

45. The Mini ADHD Coach. (2022). Masking adhd symptoms. https://www.theminiadhdcoach.com/adhd-diagnosis/masked-adhd

46. Up. (2021, March 12). Understanding hyperlexia in children: Unraveling the fascinating world of early reading. Upbility Publications. https://upbility.net/blogs/news/hyperlexia-in-children

47. Whelpley, C. E., Holladay-Sandidge, H. D., Woznyj, H. M., & Banks, G. C. (2023). The biopsychosocial model and neurodiversity: A person-centered approach. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 16(1), 25–30. https://doi.org/10.1017/iop.2022.95

48. Yen, E., & Davis, J. M. (2022). The immediate and long-term effects of prenatal opioid exposure. Frontiers in Pediatrics, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fped.2022.1039055

49. Young, S., Adamo, N., Ásgeirsdóttir, B., Branney, P., Beckett, M., Colley, W., Cubbin, S., Deeley, Q., Farrag, E., Gudjonsson, G., Hill, P., Hollingdale, J., Kilic, O., Lloyd, T., Mason, P., Paliokosta, E., Perecherla, S., Sedgwick, J., Skirrow, C.,...Woodhouse, E. (2020). Females with adhd: An expert consensus statement taking a lifespan approach providing guidance for the identification and treatment of attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder in girls and women. BMC Psychiatry, 20(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-02707-9